How can we plan and decide upon
urban growth?, which house to buy as
a secure investment?, which properties are
at risk? All these are critical questions we
have to face in a changing world and that
may affect permanently our lives. For this
reason, today it is much more important
to make the correct decisions, whether
for designing the national economy or
making personal plans for the future.
Making decisions requires knowledge,
knowledge requires reliable information
and reliable information requires
integrated data from different sources, with
a certain degree of accuracy and reliability
since the beginning. One of the key factors
in most decisions is the geographical
location, the common denominator for
connecting data and information with
a specific feature, such as an address,
building, river, a point in a highway, a gas
or water pipeline. At present, geographical
information is worldwide recognized,
particularly by the governments, as a
key component of the so-called national
information infrastructure, becoming
a facilitator of knowledge economy
which potential may be used as the
basis of sharing and exploitation of
significant geo-referenced information
coming from several organizations.
In this sense, providing accurate
information with the appropriate quality,
reliability and opportunity is crucial.
Nevertheless, this situation is not
automatically reached, but with
leadership and a user-oriented scope.
Financial support is also necessary for
the infrastructure sustainability, in good
or bad times and in spite of political
changes. In some way, this scenery is
common to all countries that are trying
to improve their economies based on
geographical data and information.
One of the objectives of several
governments is the establishment of a
geographical reference base, reliable and
integrated, capable of supporting the eeconomy,
both in the governmental and
commercial sectors, because of the need
of geo-referenced data and information
for the strengthening of potential usersproducers
interchange of added-value
data in “location-based services”. For
consistent results, with the proper
quality, a “national geographical frame”
is required, not only as organized data
but interrelated and integrated at some
level of intended information, easy to be
handled and supported by a set of national
policies for its production, sharing,
interchange, access and acquisition.
A reasonable general model does not
need exorbitant price –or absolute freeproducts
and services, but a balance
that benefits both users and producers.
Data and Information
The concept of the evolving chain of Data >> Information >> Knowledge >> Wisdom
is becoming more and more important day
by day. A hierarchical chain where each
concept adds value to the previous one:
Data is at the basic level, Information adds
a certain context, Knowledge implies a
clearer notion of the intended use of the
information and Wisdom adds the what for
notion used to solve a complex situation.This evolving chain is an intellectual
model useful for defining a reasonable
position in spatial or territorial analysis.
This model -called DIKW by Russel
Ackoff- is directly related to the Spatial
Data Infrastructure (SDI) concept.The term Spatial Data Infrastructure
implies (and it is true) that “Data” is
being dealt with, although experts and
non experts sometimes expect that SDI
solve complex spatial problems.
It is evident that “Data” is not part of
a magic solution because of its natural
attributes. There is a complex relation
between data and information, where
the difference is usually vague. The
information production begins with
the primary data obtained in different
ways, including several observation
techniques with instruments. Data are
delivered as standardized observations
and measurements, therefore data can not
provide knowledge (here we assume that
the more complex the problem, the further
the data is from the solution). Data may
exist in any organized form, useful or not.
Now, what about information? Well,
information has an intention level given
by the relations between spatial objects
(previously designed, selected and
characterized according to standards and
specifications). Data is then integrated,
analyzed, interpreted and transmitted to
users as information. While data may be
standardly stored and managed and be
useful for many years, even centuries,
information is user-oriented and its useful
life is comparatively short. So, information
may answer simple questions such as
who, what, where, when, but not “how”
or “why”, which is a matter of analysis.
Here it is when knowledge answers to “how” and “why”, information obtains a
meaning through interpretation, becoming
knowledge (only the Man can interpret).
Wisdom appears after understanding
of knowledge, particularly when it
refers to human well-being. Therefore,
wisdom is a mental process by which we
distinguish, evaluate and decide what is
correct or not for us. This may be useful
to understand the gap between making
decisions based on “Data” or based on
a “Structure of Spatial knowledge”.
According to the English official
agency responsible of the spatial
information (Ordnance Survey), the
geographical information includes two
data classes, generally in graphic form:
● Reference Data (known
together as “Base Map”)
● Thematic Data or User Data (what
is placed on the “Base Map”)
These two commonly known classes
of geographical information and
their distinction have been developed
by the INSPIRE initiative of the
European Commission, (European
Commission [EC], 2003), in order
to produce consistent geographical
information all around the region.
Typically, the “Reference Data” includes
territorial data, for example, plots,
buildings, highways, rivers, elevation
data and imagery, among others. In this
context, the “Reference Data”, interrelated
and separated in similar groups, takes
the sense on “information”, which users
may use to overlay their own data, that
is, pipeline networks, electric plants
and underground cables, site location of
police interest, census data and health
or poverty situation, among others.
The Past and the Digital Age
In the world of the paper maps, it has
been very difficult to interchange and
combine data and information because
users and producers apply different
levels of detail, and diverse geographic
reference systems and cartographic
projection systems; furthermore, usually
methodologies, accuracy statements and
producer are not documented properly.
On the other hand, the problem with
paper maps is that data and information
are geometrically represented, then the
handmade combination of polygons
of different maps is extremely time
consuming. Also, in many countries
the lack of technological and
methodological capacity to combine
geometric elements with statistics data
derived from human activities has been
a not easily surmountable aspect.
The digital age arrival has caused
organizations to apply the new
technology first with map conversion
to a digital format, repeating what
was done in the “world of paper”.
During the last decade, we have
noticed that the investment on data and
information production, particularly
on their maintenance, is financially
significative, requiring a flash of wisdom.
In that respect, the lack of wisdom to
decide how to spend the funds and on what
may lead to a situation where the ability
or capacity is so poor that an efficient data
and information integration from different
sources is not possible, and instead
of solving problems this production
becomes an obstacle to progress.
Frequently, users have to adapt the
spatial data acquired in order to be
usable to their needs, whether formatting
or matching the data with a group
of data from other source. In many
countries data may be non updated or
need a “cleaning” process for a certain
purpose, and although these activities are
necessary, they are not always welcome.
The ideal situation is that data comply
with quality standards, be produced only
once, be updated and be used several
times. These simple tasks add cost and
time to the projects, whatever their
dimension or importance, minimizing
national efficiency and knowledge
economy. Evidence suggests that there
is a great potential in supporting the
national economy with a rigorous spatial
data infrastructure both to face present
challenges and improve the future position
of a country within the e-economy.
Another classical situation in geography
is that the cartographic works represent
past facts, that is, historical views or
quasi “recent” phenomena. With this
perspective, almost all maps represent
different moments of the change in the
elements of the territory, without the
spatial relation with phenomena associated
to human activity. None map shows people living conditions, nor their influence on the
physical environment. Maps are usually a
retrospection of some events on the land.
We need to look forward. Accepting this
consideration as true, digital spatial data
and its map representation should be useful
for society and government to look to the
future with two purposes: to prevent and/or
preserve certain conditions or phenomena
of interest to the Territory-Society relation,
and to facilitate the intellectual work
of designing the future and creating the
sceneries where this relation be in balance.
The Spatial Data Infrastructures
The SDI concept is an answer to
conclusive events with positive effects on
certain regions or countries, or negative
on others. For example, in regions with
geographical information available,
along with the power of the Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), the tools
for supporting decision making, the
databases, the world wide web (www) and
the necessary interoperability, the way in
which societies with better resources face
critical affairs of social importance, of
environment and of economies changes
quickly and accordingly. Nevertheless,
in the age of the computers and the
big web, users have great difficulties
to find and use suitable geographical
information. This situation may lead
to abandon projects or to repeat the
geographic data and information
production unnecessarily and costly.
Because of this reason and others, the
need to access spatial data from different
sources at all scales as a guide for
decision making is quite obvious. Then,
our ability to make intelligent decisions
collectively at the local, national, regional
and global levels, firstly depends on the
conceptualization, development and results
of the Spatial Data Infrastructures that
must facilitate and achieve the access
and use of data and information under
the following terms: Comparability,
Shareability, Compatibility, Reliability,
Consistency and Completeness.
In order to achieve a sustainable
development, updated spatial information
of quality is required, which may help to
show the situation and interdependence
of economic, demographic and social
phenomena, as well as their relation to the
physical environment and the territorial
space. Then, the spatial information
is the necessary input for knowledge
generation useful in the definition of
policies and decision making in order
to achieve the well-being of the Society
and the development of Mexico.
Consequently, the societies need to
be aware of the existence of data and
information, rely on their quality,
determine their level of application and
access them easily, with the purpose
of sharing and integrating information
from different sources. Although the
technology required is available, the
dissimilar characteristics of data have
become evident and they are the result of
partial and local scopes in the production
of information during the previous decade.
The need to minimize the gap in
knowledge between developed and
developing countries has been declared in
several regional and global forums, such as
the Rio Summit (1992), the United Nations
Regional Cartographic Conferences, the
world development report “Knowledge for
Development” (1998-1999), and lately the
Johannesburg Summit (September 2002)
and the World Summit on the Information
Society (Geneve, December 2003), where
the subject of information and technology
for development has been dealt with.
In Johannesburg, the progress achieved
by different countries with respect to
production and use of geographical
information was supported through the
establishment of agreements addressed
to promote the development and wider
use of earth observation technologies,
including remote sensors, global
cartography and geographic information
systems, for quality data collection that
facilitates the evaluation and coordination
among systems and research programs,
considering the need to create capacity
and share data from different sources.
As an answer to the initiatives and the
derived agreements, the spatial data
infrastructures emerged and became
stronger in the last years, and have
created a cooperation space around the
world among government producers,
private sector, academy and user
community in order to work together in
the establishment of systems, network
connections, standards, specifications
and all the institutional elements required
to guarantee the production, access
and use of geographical information.
In the past ten years, more than a half
of the countries in the world have
developed spatial data infrastructures
initiatives with the purpose to promote
good government, and economic and
sustainable development. The growth
and adoption of these initiatives has
contributed to the improvement and wider
use of the Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) jointly addressed
to decision making for sustainable
development of countries. The existence
of successful SDI is making a significant difference between countries with low or
high development, specifically with respect
to environment management, disaster
prevention and mitigation, transportation
and infrastructure planning, drinking
water distribution, poverty reduction, and
defense and security. Therefore SDI have
become a basic element in planning, at
all levels of world-wide governments,
because spatial data and information
in an adequate communication setting
may lead to government efficiency.
Two successful cases
In Great Britain, the use of geographical
information has spread to many market
sectors, central and local government,
service companies and multi-applications
in the private sector. A study performed
by an independent consultant group
(OXERA, 1999), showed that about
100 billion pounds sterling of gross
domestic product (GDP) in 1996 were
in some way supported by the spatial
information of the Ordnance Survey.
The National Land Survey of Sweden
(NLS) “Lantmäteriet” is the national
cartographic agency and the national
cadastre authority which provides
a wide variety of modern data and
consultant services with an income of
30 | June 2009
1.3 billion Swedish kronas, where 900
millions were the profit derived from
the sale of data and services in 2001.
This case shows that the business model
applied produces incomes and profits
for the organization, and supposedly
contributes to the Sweden GDP.
The cultural change
If we assume that complex problems
do not require complex solutions
but solutions with knowledge, we
have to accept that such knowledge
should be derived from information
of multiple, accurate and compatibles
sources, that is enriched by diversity.
Then, we have to review and modify
our present perspective, changing
to a new organizational culture that
may guarantee our capability in
accomplishing the demands of the
rising economy of knowledge. Also, we
need to attract and retain experts in the
key programs of production in order
to assure that organizations be ready
to give an answer to future requests.
What is Mexico doing?
Since 2004, the National Institute of
Statistics and Geography (INEGI:
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y
Geografía) has formally embedded in
its objectives the establishment and
building of the Spatial Data Infrastructure
of Mexico (IDEMex: Infraestructura
de Datos Espaciales de México).
So that the IDEMex may achieve a
complete development, the strategy of
obtaining a government mandate along
with the resources for its continuity
brings clear advantages. The success
of that strategy is closely related to
an efficient and timely public service
through a transparent access o the public
to the government information, where
the results of the mandate and the user
satisfaction may be appreciated.
Also, the IDEMex expects to achieve a
higher integration of producers and users
of geographical information, admitting
that some actors are more important
than others and the commitment of
the parts is not necessarily the same.
Besides, this means that each actor must
recognize the importance of his/her role
and the responsibility in the collective
work for the IDEMex development.
For the successful future of the IDEMex,
the vital need of an increasing awareness
of the decisions makers in considering
the spatial data and information as
a natural resource that has to be
managed and coordinated according
to national interests is highlighted,
and in consequence all the participants
must collaborate in this respect,
depending of their responsibilities.
Nowadays, there is an obligation and
a necessity of designing strategies for
the construction of a successful future
for the IDEMex and Mexico, including
the study and consideration of the
best practices and changes in the way
that some other countries are dealing
with such themes as privatization,
free market, and the increasing
globalization of the production,
analysis and distribution activities of
the spatial data and information.
Measuring the impact of decisions
based on geographical knowledge in
the economy of any country demands
an extensive and intensive research,
that initially, is characterized for an
unbalance: more questions and gaps,
than certainties and indicators.
According to a study of The Economist,
a decisive factor to place Mexico
among the five bigger economies of
the world in 2040 is the adequate
financing of its most important
activities. As already seen, at least in
the case of Great Britain, the sustained
investment on the official geographical
information agency, the Ordnance
Survey, has allowed the generation of
measurable and improvable wealth.
The importance of the use of spatial
data, information and knowledge in the
economy, development and well-being of
any country will have an evident impact,
as in those ones where instead of waiting
for the future, they decided to design it. |
